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Linguistic terminology

Lexis and semantics

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Linguistic terminology

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Summary

Lexis and semantics

In a nutshell

Lexis refers to vocabulary, and semantics is the meanings of those words individually and in sentences. In this summary, you will learn the different relationships between words and their meanings.

Lexis

Lexis is everything to do with words, their meanings and their origins. Lexis consists of vocabulary, meaning all of the individual words of a particular language.

Lexical relations

The way different words interact with and relate to one another is known as lexical relations. Below is a list of the relationships words can have with one another:

Synonymy	Synonyms are two or more words with very closely related meanings.	answer $=$ response $=$ reply
Antonymy	Antonyms are two or more words with opposite meanings.	to live $\neq$ to die
Hypernymy /hyponymy	Hypernyms are "umbrella terms" that contain other words (hyponyms) in a hierarchical relationship.	animal $\overbrace{hypernym}$ $\downarrow$ dog $\overbrace{hyponym}$
Polysemy	Polysemic words are those with the same form (i.e. same spelling/pronunciation) but multiple meanings.	bank (1. financial institution) (2. of a river)

High- vs low-frequency lexis

Lexis can be high-frequency, meaning words that appear frequently in everyday speech or low-frequency, meaning words and terms that are used more rarely: specialist vocabulary, for example.

Whether lexis is high or low frequency can inform your analysis of a text: the more low-frequency lexis used, the more specialist and therefore high-register the text is likely to be:

Example

The infant ingested bovine milk from the receptacle.	The child drank cow's milk from the glass.
This sentence uses low-frequency lexis. This is often of Latinate origin, meaning derived from Latin: īnfantem $\rightarrow$ infant ingerō $\rightarrow$ ingest bovīnus $\rightarrow$ bovine receptāculum $\rightarrow$ receptacle	This sentence uses high-frequency lexis. This is often of Anglo-Saxon origin, meaning derived from Old English: ċild $\rightarrow$ child drincan $\rightarrow$ drink $\rightarrow$ cū $\rightarrow$ cow $\rightarrow→ cow$ glæs $\rightarrow$ glass

Note: This is not always the case: think of cutting-edge youth slang. Its usage is not widely adopted by speakers of a language and is therefore an example of low-frequency lexis – yet is used in exclusively informal contexts.

Compounds and collocations

Lexis does not have to involve single words. It also includes strings of words that combine into one meaning or co-occurrences of words often found together.

Compound words

Compound words are when multiple words combine together to form one unit of meaning.

pick (v.) + pocket (n.) = pickpocket (n.)
hear (v.) + say (v.) = hearsay (n.)
ready (adj.) + made (v.) = readymade (adj.)

Collocations

Collocations are sequences of words that usually co-occur in a sentence.

Collocations with "to take"

\rightarrow

a left, a right, responsibility, ownership, your time, a breath
Collocations with "to do"

\rightarrow

the dishes, your best, away with something, the Hokey Pokey

Semantics

Semantics is all about meaning. Semantics generally refers to the way that sentence meaning is derived from the sum of its parts – the individual words in a sentence – in what linguists call compositional semantics. According to some definitions, semantics also includes meaning in context.

Denotation

The denotative use of a word is its literal meaning regardless of context. This is the type of meaning you are likely to have explained in a dictionary.

Example

strike (n.) – a refusal to work as a form of organised protest

Note: "Strike" is a polysemic word. This means that it has more than one literal meaning: it is also "the act of knocking down all of the pins in tenpin bowling on the first ball", "a forceful, deliberate hit with one's hand", etc.

Connotation

The connotative use of a word is its meaning in context or the associated meanings and images that accompany it. By its nature, it is a more subjective measure of meaning.

Example

The boss said to his employer, "That's strike two. Three strikes and you're out".

vs.

I couldn't believe it! I got three strikes and ended up winning at bowling!

Notice here how, in the first example, the use of "three strikes" has a negative connotation: it refers to the chances the worker has left for poor behaviour. In the second example, however, "three strikes" has a positive connotation: it is a desirable outcome in a game of bowling. The context the word is used in, as well as the subjective association one might have with the word "strike", influences the meaning.

Learn with Basics

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Unit 1

Grammatical hierarchy

Unit 2

Word classes: Lexical words and grammatical words

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Unit 3