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Measuring rates of reaction
Determining reaction orders
The initial rates method
Rate equations and the rate constant
The rate determining step
Activation energy and the Arrhenius equation
Equilibrium constant calculations
Partial pressure and gas equilibria
Le Chatelier's principle and equilibrium constants
Enthalpy changes and reaction profiles
Standard enthalpy changes
Calculating bond enthalpies
Hess's Law and enthalpy cycles
Collision theory and rates of reaction
Calculating the rate of reaction
Catalysts and the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
Reversible reactions
Le Chatelier's principle
The equilibrium constant
The atom: history, structure and isotopes
Relative masses and mass spectrometry
The mole and Avogadro's constant
Calculations involving gases
Empirical and molecular formulae
Balancing equations
Formulae for crystals and salts
Acid-base titrations
Atom economy and percentage yield
Calculating oxidation numbers
Oxidation, reduction and redox reactions
It is important to produce single isomers wherever possible as the other isomers may have adverse effects. It also reduces the extra step of purification and down-time.
Safety precautions are taken to minimise risks posed by chemical reagents. Chemists also follow a set of principles to ensure the use of materials is sustainable and any harmful impact to the environment is minimal.
A synthetic route shows how you go from the starting material to the product. It may include details such as the practical technique needed, reagents used and any conditions required.
Beta